Two Views on Domesticity Essay Example for Free

Two Views on Domesticity Essay In Joan Williams book â€Å"Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It†, she defines domesticity as â€Å"a gender system comprising most centrally of both the particular organization of market work and family work that arose around 1780, and the gender norms that justify, sustain, and reproduce that organization. † (1) Throughout the book, Williams seeks to redefine the very meaning of domesticity and how it affects both men and women. The author of the article â€Å"Gender, Status, and Feeling†, seeks to explain how men and women navigate their emotional minefields and why it affects their respective statuses in society. While Williams and the author of â€Å"Gender, Status, and Feeling† differ on the reasons why women are seen as being on a lower pedestal than men, they both agree that women do a good job of dealing the hand they are dealt, for the most part. It is obvious that Williams sympathy lies toward the female half of the population. In the introduction, Williams cites several statistics that shows the reader how women are victimized by the â€Å"ideal worker† norm. The author defines an ideal worker as someone who works forty hours a week year round. (2) She goes on to explain how this norm excludes most â€Å"mothers of childbearing age. †(2) One statistic cited states that â€Å" two-thirds (Williams emphasis) [of mothers] are not ideal workers even in the minimal sense of working full time full year. † (2) Another statistic cited states that 93 percent of mothers are excluded from jobs that require â€Å"extensive overtime. † (2) With sobering statistics like these, Williams tries to show that against towering odds, mothers of childbearing age arent able to compete in the market workplace with men. Williams unequivocally states that she wants to â€Å"democratize access to domesticity. † (174) She then goes on to state that â€Å"a restructuring of market work will give to working class women and women of color greater access to the parental care that remains a widespread social ideal. † (174) This is an interesting idea because earlier in the book, Williams ripped apart a womans book because the author made certain life and career choices that didnt seem palatable to Williams for some reason. Deborah Fallows, a successful linguist in her own right, went down to part time hours, then quit altogether, when her son was born. She wrote a book called A Mothers Work, which described the journey that she took from successful career woman to stay-at-home mom. For some reason, Williams doesnt believe Fallows would happily give up her career for her son and husband, a high powered White House aide. Williams states: â€Å"Thus Fallows presents (authors emphasis) her decision to stay home as a choice she made to improve her own emotional state She quit both to avoid negative feelings and to experience positive ones, as leaving gave her more time â€Å"to partake of the pleasures of [Tommys] company. † (19) Williams sees Fallows choice to stay home as a prime example of how domesticity saturates even the upper levels of society. Williams goes so far as to attack Fallows view on child care. On page 32, Williams wonders why Fallows would be against day care in general when her own experience was positive: â€Å"It is hard to see why the low quality of child care for the poor explains Fallows decision to stay home. † It seems as if Williams is having a really hard time trying to figure out why an upper class woman like Fallows would give up everything she was working for in order to stay home with her child. If staying at home with the kids is okay for poor and working class women, why isnt it okay for a woman like Fallows? On the surface, Williams seems to be fighting for women all across the economic spectrum. However, underneath lies a subtle streak of the same sort of classist attitudes that Williams pins on some feminists later on in her book. With Williams raging against the machine of domesticity, one would think that the author would lash out at the male half of the population. Surprisingly, she doesnt do this. Williams feels that men are also the victims of domesticitys ideas of the ideal worker as well as domesticitys view in other areas of society. For example, on page 3, Williams explains how women generally lose out when it comes to financial support after divorce: â€Å"Mothers marry, marginalize, and then divorce in a system that typically defines womens and childrens postdivorce entitlements in terms of their basic â€Å"needs†, while mens entitlements reflect the assumption (derived from domesticity) that they â€Å"own† their ideal-worker wage. † In this case, Williams chooses not to point the finger at an easy target (men). Instead, she blames a system that allows men to keep the vast majority of their earnings while â€Å"40 percent of divorced mothers live in poverty. † (3) Williams even blames domesticity for the lack of parenting prowess on the part of some men. Again, Williams cites some statistics that shows how domesticity changed attitudes on parenting: â€Å"One study estimated that an average American father spends twelve minutes a day in solo child care. Another reported that mothers spend about three times as much time as fathers in face-to-face interaction with their children. † (3) The author then gives a short history lesson on how exactly did domesticity changed the face of parenting for both men and women: child rearing was considered too important to be left to women, and child-rearing manuals addressed fathers. Men were actively involved, in part because market work and family work were not yet geographically separated, so that fathers generally worked closer to home than most do today In a society that viewed women as the â€Å"weaker vessel,† it made no sense to delegate childrens health, well-being, and eternal souls to the exclusive sphere of women. (3) It seems as if Williams is yearning for a simpler time when fathers could take off work for a few moments and read a story to his children. This isnt a perfect scenario. After all, women were seen as inferior second class citizens who werent capable of molding the minds of her children. What Williams is actually wishing for is a time where the ideas of domesticity didnt interfere with the way that fathers tended to their children. While Joan Williams is sounding a battle cry, the author of the article â€Å"Gender, Status, and Feeling† is blowing a whistle. In the article, the author attempts to explain not only how men and women handle their emotions, but how women use their emotions to navigate a society that still sees them as second class citizens. One thing that Williams and the author article would agree on is that the female half of the population is usually seen as an afterthought in our society. This point would be where the two authors viewpoints diverge. First, the author of the article argues that women use their emotions as a means to an end. In a society that doesnt value a lot of their contributions, some women have found other ways to survive: lacking other resources, women make a resource out of feeling and offer it to men as a gift in return for the more material resources they lack. For example, in 1980 only 6 percent of women but 50 percent of men earned over $15,000 a year. (GSF 163) From this passage, one can see that the author feels that women readily adapted to the hand they were dealt. The author doesnt even seem to think this is a bad thing. They see this manipulation of their emotional palette more as a means of survival. The author even theorizes as to why women are believed to have been born with what Williams calls an â€Å"ethic of care†: As for many others of lower status, it has been in the womans interest to be the better actor. As the psychologists would say, the techniques of deep acting have unusually high â€Å"secondary† gains. Yet these skills have long been mislabeled â€Å"natural†, a part of womens â€Å"being† rather than something of her own making. (GSF 167) Williams would disagree with part of this authors statement. While the author of the article and Williams both believe that the place of women in society is based on societal beliefs, Williams states in her book that the ideas that domesticity has planted is the sole reason for this. For example, on page 182, William says that â€Å" women need to be selfless only because they live in a system that marginalizes caregivers. † In other words, women have no choice but to be selfless caregivers. In her book, Williams does everything she can to fight the societal belief that all women are born with an ethic of care. The author of â€Å"Gender, Status, and Feeling†, however, not only thinks that women are born with this innate need to nurture, but that it comes in handy when women become mothers: â€Å" more women at all class levels do unpaid labor of a highly interpersonal sort. They nurture, manage and befriend children. More â€Å"adaptive† and â€Å"cooperative†, they address themselves better to the needs of those who are not yet able to adapt and cooperate much themselves. †(GSF 170) The author of the article uses the example of male and female flight attendants to illustrate how society views men and women in a position of authority. The author reported that when a female flight attendant makes a request of a passenger, the passengers would usually argue with them. When a male flight attendant was called over to help, the request was usually granted with no problem. Williams claims that most people arent able to help this phenomenon: â€Å"Thirty years of second-wave feminism have seen many accomplishments, but dislodging the ideology of domesticity is not one of them. Most people, feminists or not, believe some version of domesticitys descriptions of men and women. † (193) Williams and the author of â€Å"Gender, Status, and Feeling† would disagree about a lot of things. Williams is a head strong feminist whose goal is to change the core beliefs of society. The author of the article believes that women have used their emotional palettes to adapt to their marginalized role in society and doesnt say whether this survival tactic should be a thing of the past. One thing that is evident in both Williams book and the article is the belief that women throughout history have been resilient in working the hand they are dealt and will continue this tradition as long as society pushes their half to the outermost margins. Works Cited Williams, Joan. Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000 â€Å"Gender, Status, and Feeling† (article)

Digital modulation and demodulation

Digital modulation and demodulation Chapter 1 Digital Communications 1.0 Digital Communication 1.1 Introduction Communication Process: When we think of communication, we usually think of people talking or listening to each other. This may happen face to face, or it may occur through the assistance of a telephone, radio, or television. Basically, communication is the transfer of information. Life In our modern, complex world depends more and more on the transfer of information. The increasing dependency on the transfer of information has stimulated the growth of more and more communication systems. This surge in communication and communication systems has been referred to as a technological revolution. This shows understand the transfer of information in a communication system The communication system will consist of at least the three parts shown. The channel can be as simple as the air that carries the sound of your voice, or as complex as the satellite network required to carry a television program around the world. The most common problem encountered by the communication process is interference. Interference is any force that disrupts or distorts the information or message while it is being channeled. It could be noise, as in the case of normal conversation, or atmospheric weather changes, as In the case of radio or television The biggest cause of interference, however, is a simple misinterpretation of the intended message. Cultural, economic, and political diversities allow people to receive the same message but interpret it differently. Communication Systems: Communication system is a combination of processes and hardware used to accomplish the transfer of Information (communication). A system is a group of interrelated parts. We find that there are systems all around us. In nature, we can also find examples of systems that have been created by people. An automobile, a washing machine, and an electric drill are examples. 1.2 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: Based on the requirements, the communications can be of different types: Point-to-point communication: In this type, communication takes place between two end points. For instance, in the case of voice communication using telephones, there is one calling party and one called party. Hence the communication is point-to-point. Point-to-multipoint communication: In this type of communication, there is one sender and multiple recipients. For example, in voice conferencing, one person will be talking but many others can listen. The message from the sender has to be multicast to many others. Broadcasting: In a broadcasting system, there is a central location from which information is sent to many recipients, as in the case of audio or video broadcasting. In a broadcasting system, the listeners are passive, and there is no reverse communication path. In simplex communication, the communication is one-way only. In half-duplex communication, communication is both ways, but only in one direction at a time. In full-duplex communication, communication is in both directions simultaneously. Simplex communication: In simplex communication, communication is possible only in one direction. There is one sender and one receiver; the sender and receiver cannot change roles. Half-duplex communication: Half-duplex communication is possible in both directions between two entities (computers or persons), but one at a time. A walkie-talkie uses this approach. The person who wants to talk presses a talk button on his handset to start talking, and the other persons handset will be in receiving mode. When the sender finishes, he terminates it with an over message. The other person can press the talk button and start talking. These types of systems require limited channel bandwidth, so they are low cost systems. Full-duplex communication: In a full-duplex communication system, the two parties-the caller and the called-can communicate simultaneously, as in a telephone system. However, note that the communication system allows simultaneous transmission of data, but when two persons talk simultaneously, there is no effective communication! The ability of the communication system to transport data in both directions defines the system as full-duplex. 1.3 ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL TRANSMISSION: In analog communication, the signal, whose amplitude varies continuously, is transmitted over the medium. Reproducing the analog signal at the receiving end is very difficult due to transmission impairments. Hence, analog communication systems are badly affected by noise. In a digital communication system, 1s and 0s are transmitted as voltage pulses. So, even if the pulse is distorted due to noise, it is not very difficult to detect the pulses at the receiving end. Hence, digital communication is much more immune to noise as compared to analog communication. 1.4 Digital Modulation: Firstly, what do we mean by digital modulation? Typically the objective of a digital communication system is to transport digital data between two or more nodes. In radio communications this is usually achieved by adjusting a physical characteristic of a sinusoidal carrier, the frequency, phase, amplitude or a combination thereof. This is performed in real systems with a modulator at the transmitting end to impose the physical change to the carrier and a demodulator at the receiving end to detect the resultant modulation on reception. * Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signal. * Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal over long distances. * Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal onto a carrier signal. * These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air easily and are capable of traveling long distances. * The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the information bearing signal. * In the field of communication engineering, the information bearing signal is also known as the modulating signal. * The modulating signal is a slowly varying signal as opposed to the rapidly varying carrier frequency. The principal of a digital communication system is that during a finite interval of time, it sends a waveform from a finite set of possible waveforms, in contrast to an analog communication system, which sends a waveform from an infinite variety of waveform shapes, with theoretically infinite resolution. In a DCS (digital communication system), the objective of the receiver is not to reproduce a transmitted waveform with precision. The objective is to determine from a noise-perturbed signal which waveform from the finite set of waveforms was sent by the transmitter. Why Digital?  · The primary advantage is the ease with which digital signals, compared with analog signals, is regenerated. The shape of the waveform is affected by two basic mechanisms. As all transmission lines and circuits have some non-ideal frequency transfer function, there is a distorting effect on the ideal pulse. Unwanted electrical noise or other interference further distorts the pulse waveform. Both of these mechanisms cause the pulse shape to degrade. * With digital techniques, extremely low error rates producing high signal fidelity are possible through error detection and correction but similar procedures are not available with analog. * Digital circuits are more reliable and can be reproduced at a lower cost than analog circuits. * Digital hardware lends itself to more flexible implementation than analog circuits. * The combination of digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is simpler than combining analog signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). Metrics for Digital Modulation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Power Efficiency Ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels Designer can increase noise immunity by increasing signal power Power efficiency is a measure of how much signal power should be increased to achieve a particular BER for a given modulation scheme Signal energy per bit / noise power spectral density: Eb / N0 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Bandwidth Efficiency Ability to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth Tradeoff between data rate and pulse width Throughput data rate per hertz: R/B bps per Hz à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Shannon Limit: Channel capacity / bandwidth C/B = log2(1 + S/N) Disadvantages of Digital Systems * Digital systems tend to be very signal processing intensive compared with analog. * Digital systems need to allocate a significant share of their resources to the task of synchronization at various levels. With analog signals synchronization is accomplished more easily. * One disadvantage of digital communication system is non-graceful degradation. When the SNR drops below a certain threshold, the quality of service can change form very good to very poor. Most analog systems degrade more gracefully. Formatting The goal of the first essential processing step, formatting is to ensure that the source signal is compatible with digital processing. Transmit formatting is a transformation from source information to digital symbols. When data compression in addition to formatting is employed, the process is termed source coding. The digital messages are considered to be in the logical format of binary 1s and 0s until they are transformed by pulse modulation into base band (pulse) waveforms. Such waveforms are then transmitted over a cable. No channel can be used for the transmission of binary digits without first transforming the digits to waveforms that are compatible with the channel. For base band channels, compatible waveforms are pulses. The conversion from a bit of streams to a sequence of pulse waveforms takes place in the block labeled, modulator. The output of a modulator is typically a sequence of pulses with characteristics that correspond to the digits being sent. After transmission through the channel the pulse waveforms are recovered (demodulated) and detected to produce an estimate of the transmitted digits. Formatting in a digital Communication System Symbols When digitally transmitted, the characters are first encoded into a sequence of bits, called a bit stream or base band signal. Group of K bits can then be combined to form new digits, or symbols, from a finite or alphabet of M = 2^K such symbols. A system using a symbol set size of M is referred to as M-array system. Waveform Representation of Binary Digits Digits are just abstractions way to describe the message information. Thus we need something physical that will represent or carry the digits. Thus binary digits are represented with electrical pulses in order to transmit them through a base band channel. At the receiver, a determination must be made regarding the shape of pulse. The likelihood of correctly detecting the pulse is a function of the received signal energy (or area under the pulse). PCM Waveform Types When pulse modulation is applied to a binary symbol, the resulting binary waveform is called a PCM waveform. There are several types of PCM waveforms. These waveforms are often called line codes. When pulse modulation is applied to non-binary symbol, the resulting waveform is called an M-ary pulse modulation waveform. The PCM waveforms fall into the following four groups. 1) Non return to zero (NRZ) 2) Return to zero (RZ) 3) Phase encoded ) Multilevel binary The NRZ group is probably the most commonly used PCM waveform. In choosing a waveform for a particular application, some of the parameters worth examining are 1) DC component 2) Self clocking 3) Error detection ) Bandwidth compression 5) Differential encoding 6) Noise immunity The most common criteria used for comparing PCM waveforms and for selecting one waveform type from many available are 1) Spectral characteristics 2) Bit synchronization capabilities 3) Error detection capabilities ) Interference 5) Noise immunity 6) Cost and complexity of implementation Bits per PCM Word and Bits per Symbol Each analog sample is transformed into a PCM word up to group of bits. The number of quantization levels allowed for each sample can describe the PCM word size; this is identical to the number of values that the PCM word can assume. We use L=2^l Where L is the number of quantization levels in PCM word, l is the number of bits needed to represent those levels. M-ARY Pulse Modulation Waveforms There are three basic ways to modulate information onto a sequence of pulses; we can vary the pulses amplitude, position, or duration. This leads to the names 1) PAM (pulse amplitude modulation) 2) PPM (pulse position modulation) 3) PDM/PWM (pulse duration modulation/ pulse width modulation) When information samples without any quantization are modulated on to the pulses, the resulting pulse modulation can be called analog pulse modulation. When the information samples are first quantized, yielding symbols from an M-ary alphabet set, and the modulation on to pulses, the resulting pulse modulation is digital and we refer to it as M-ary pulse modulation. Base-band modulation with pulses has analogous counterparts in the area of band-pass modulation. PAM is similar to amplitude modulation, while PPM and PDM are similar to phase and frequency modulation respectively. Spectral Density The spectral density of a signal characterizes the distribution of the signals energy or power in the frequency domain. Energy Spectral Density We can relate the energy of a signal expressed in time domain to the energy expressed in frequency domain as: à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ Ex = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ « x ²(t) dt -à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ « |X (f) | ² df -à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ Where X (f) is the Fourier transform of the non periodic signal x (t). Let à Ã‹â€  (t) = |X (f) | ² à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ Ex = 2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ « à Ã‹â€ x (f) df -à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ Power Spectral Density The power spectral density function Gx (t) of the periodic signal x (t) is real, even and nonnegative function of frequency that gives the distribution of the power of x (t) in the frequency domain. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ Gx (t) = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ |Cn| ² à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ «(f-nfo) n =-à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ PSD of a periodic signal is a discrete function of frequency. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ Px = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ « Gx (t) df -à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ = 2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ «Gx (F) df 0 If x (t) is a non-periodic signal it cannot be expressed by a Fourier series, and if it is a non-periodic power signal (having infinite energy) it may not have a Fourier transform. However we still express the PSD of such signals in a limiting sense. Chapter 2 Modulation and Demodulation 2.0 Modulation and Demodulation Since the early days of electronics, as advances in technology were taking place, the boundaries of both local and global communication began eroding, resulting in a world that is smaller and hence more easily accessible for the sharing of knowledge and information. The pioneering work by Bell and Marconi formed the cornerstone of the information age that exists today and paved the way for the future of telecommunications. Traditionally, local communication was done over wires, as this presented a cost-effective way of ensuring a reliable transfer of information. For long-distance communications, transmission of information over radio waves was needed. Although this was convenient from a hardware standpoint, radio-waves transmission raised doubts over the corruption of the information and was often dependent on high-power transmitters to overcome weather conditions, large buildings, and interference from other sources of electromagnetic. The various modulation techniques offered different solutions in terms of cost-effectiveness and quality of received signals but until recently were still largely analog. Frequency modulation and phase modulation presented certain immunity to noise, whereas amplitude modulation was simpler to demodulate. However, more recently with the advent of low-cost microcontrollers and the introduction of domestic mobile telephones and satellite communications, digital modulation has gained in popularity. With digital modulation techniques come all the advantages that traditional microprocessor circuits have over their analog counterparts. Any shortfalls in the communications link can be eradicated using software. Information can now be encrypted, error correction can ensure more confidence in received data, and the use of DSP can reduce the limited bandwidth allocated to each service. As with traditional analog systems, digital modulation can use amplitude, frequency, or phase modulation with different advantages. As frequency and phase modulation techniques offer more immunity to noise, they are the preferred scheme for the majority of services in use today and will be discussed in detail below 2.1 Digital Frequency Modulation: A simple variation from traditional analog frequency modulation can be implemented by applying a digital signal to the modulation input. Thus, the output takes the form of a sine wave at two distinct frequencies. To demodulate this waveform, it is a simple matter of passing the signal through two filters and translating the resultant back into logic levels. Traditionally, this form of modulation has been called frequency-shift keying (FSK). 2.2 Digital Phase Modulation: Spectrally, digital phase modulation, or phase-shift keying, is very similar to frequency modulation. It involves changing the phase of the transmitted waveform instead of the frequency, these finite phase changes representing digital data. In its simplest form, a phase-modulated waveform can be generated by using the digital data to switch between two signals of equal frequency but opposing phase. If the resultant waveform is multiplied by a sine wave of equal frequency, two components are generated: one cosine waveform of double the received frequency and one frequency-independent term whose amplitude is proportional to the cosine of the phase shift. Thus, filtering out the higher-frequency term yields the original modulating data prior to transmission. * Modulate and demodulate/detect blocks together are called a modem. * The frequency down conversion is performed in the front end of the demodulator. * Only formatting, modulation, demodulation/detection and synchronization are essential for a digital communication system. * FORMATTING transforms the source information into bits. * From this point up to pulse modulation block, the information remains in the form of a bit stream. * Modulation is the process by which message symbols or channel symbols are converted to waveforms that are compatible with the requirements imposed by transmission channel. Pulse modulation is an essential step because each symbol to be transmitted must first be transformed from a binary representation to a base band waveform. * When pulse modulation is applied to binary symbols, the resulting binary waveform is called a PCM waveform. When pulse modulation is applied to non-binary symbols, the resulting waveform is called an M-ary pulse modulation waveform. * Band pass modulation is required whenever the transmission medium will not support the propagation of pulse like waveforms. * The term band pass is used to indicate that the base band waveform gi (t) is frequency translated by a carrier wave to a frequency that is much larger than the spectral content of gi (t). * Equalization can be described as a filtering option that is used in or after the demodulator to reserve any degrading effects on the signal that were caused by the channel. An equalizer is implemented to compensate for any signal distortion caused by a no ideal hi(t) * Demodulation is defined as a recovery of a waveform (band pass pulse) and detection is defined as decision-making regarding the digital meaning of that waveform. 2.3 Linear Modulation Techniques * Digital modulation techniques may be broadly classified as linear and non-linear. In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude to the modulation signal S (t) varies linearly with the modulating digital signal m (t). * Linear modulation techniques are bandwidth efficient. * In a linear modulation technique, the transmitted signal S (t) can be expressed as: S (t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2pfct)] = A [mr(t)cos(2pfct) mI(t)sin(2pfct)] Where A is the amplitude fc is the carrier frequency m (t) = mr(t) + mI(t) is a complex envelope representation of the modulated signal which is in general complex form. * From the equations above, it is clear that the amplitude of the carrier varies linearly with the modulating signal. * Linear modulation schemes, in general do not have a constant envelope. Linear modulation schemes have very good spectral efficiency. Normalized Radian Frequency Sinusoidal waveforms are of the form: X (t) =Acos (wt+f) - (1) If we sample this waveform, we obtain X[n] =x (nTs) =Acos (wnTs+f) =Acos (wn+f) (2) Where we have defined w to be Normalized Radian Frequency: w=wTs The Signal in (2) is a discrete time cosine signal, and w is the discrete time radian frequency. w has been normalized by the sampling period. w has the units of radians/second, w=wTs has the units of radians; i.e. wis a dimensionless quantity. This is entirely consistent with the fact that the index n in x[n] is a dimensionless. Once the samples are taken from x (t), the time scale information is lost. The discrete time signal is just a sequence of numbers, and these numbers carry no information about the sampling period, which is the information required to reconstruct the time scale. Thus an infinite number of continuous time sinusoidal signals can be transformed into the same discrete time sinusoid by sampling. All we need to is to change the sampling period with changes in frequency of the continuous time sinusoid. 2.4 Baseband Transmission Baseband Demodulation/Detection  · The filtering at the transmitter and the channel typically cause the received pulse sequence to suffer from ISI (Inter Symbol Interference), thus the signal is not quiet ready for sampling and detection.  · The goal of the demodulator is to recover the pulse with best possible signal to noise ratio (SNR), free of any ISI.  · Equalization is a technique used to help accomplish this goal. Every type of communication channel does not require the equalization process. However equalization process embodies a sophisticated set of signal processing techniques, making it possible to compensate for channel induced interference.  · A received band pass waveform is first transformed to a base band waveform before the final detection step takes place.  · For liner systems, the mathematics of detection is unaffected by a shift in frequency. * According to the equivalence theorem, all linear signal-processing simulations can take place at base band (which is preferred for simplicity) with the same result as at band pass. Thus the performance of most digital communication systems will often be described and analyzed as if the transmission channel is a base band channel. Chapter 3 p/4 Quadrature 3.0 p/4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (p/4 QPSK) 3.1 Linear Modulation Techniques * Digital modulation techniques may be broadly classified as linear and non-linear. In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude to the modulation signal S (t) varies linearly with the modulating digital signal m (t). * Linear modulation techniques are bandwidth efficient. * In a linear modulation technique, the transmitted signal S (t) can be expressed as: S (t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2pfct)] = A [mr(t)cos(2pfct) mI(t)sin(2pfct)] Where A is the amplitude fc is the carrier frequency m (t) = mr(t) + mI(t) is a complex envelope representation of the modulated signal which is in general complex form. * From the equations above, it is clear that the amplitude of the carrier varies linearly with the modulating signal. * Linear modulation schemes, in general do not have a constant envelope. Linear modulation schemes have very good spectral efficiency. There are three major classes of digital modulation techniques used for transmission of digitally represented data: * Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) * Frequency-shift keying (FSK) * Phase-shift keying (PSK) All convey data by changing some aspect of a base signal, the carrier wave, (usually a sinusoid) in response to a data signal. In the case of PSK, the phase is changed to represent the data signal. There are two fundamental ways of utilizing the phase of a signal in this way: * By viewing the phase itself as conveying the information, in which case the demodulator must have a reference signal to compare the received signals phase against; or * By viewing the change in the phase as conveying information differential schemes, some of which do not need a reference carrier (to a certain extent). A convenient way to represent PSK schemes is on a constellation diagram. This shows the points in the Argand plane where, in this context, the real and imaginary axes are termed the in-phase and quadrature axes respectively due to their 90 ° separation. Such a representation on perpendicular axes lends itself to straightforward implementation. The amplitude of each point along the in-phase axis is used to modulate a cosine (or sine) wave and the amplitude along the quadrature axis to modulate a sine (or cosine) wave. In PSK, the constellation points chosen are usually positioned with uniform angular spacing around a circle. This gives maximum phase-separation between adjacent points and thus the best immunity to corruption. They are positioned on a circle so that they can all be transmitted with the same energy. In this way, the moduli of the complex numbers they represent will be the same and thus so will the amplitudes needed for the cosine and sine waves. Two common examples are binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) which uses two phases, and quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) which uses four phases, although any number of phases may be used. Since the data to be conveyed are usually binary, the PSK scheme is usually designed with the number of constellation points being a power of 2. 3.2 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Amplitude shift keying ASK in the context of digital communications is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or more discrete amplitude levels. These are related to the number of levels adopted by the digital message. For a binary message sequence there are two levels, one of which is typically zero. Thus the modulated waveform consists of bursts of a sinusoid. In Amplitude Shift Keying the Amplitude varies whereas the phase and frequency remains the same as shown in following . One of the disadvantages of ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that it has not got a constant envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult, since linearity becomes an important factor. However, it does make for ease of demodulation with an envelope detector. Thus demodulation is a two-stage process: à ¥ Recovery of the band limited bit stream à ¥ Regeneration of the binary bit stream 3.3 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a method of transmitting digital signals. The two binary states, logic 0 (low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an analog waveform. Logic 0 is represented by a wave at a specific frequency, and logic 1 is represented by a wave at a different frequency. In frequency Shift Keying the frequency varies whereas the phase and amplitude remains the same. Phase shift keying (PSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) was developed during the early days of the deep-space program. PSK is now widely used in both military and commercial communication systems. In phase shift Keying the phase of the transmitted signal varies whereas the amplitude and frequency remains the same. The general expression for the PSK is as Where, ji(t) = the phase term will have M discrete values, given by, ji(t) = 2pi /M 3.4 Binary PSK In binary phase shift keying we have two bits represented by the following waveforms; S0(t) = A cos (wt) represents binary 0 S1(t) = A cos (wt + p) represents binary 1 For M-array PSK, M different phases are required, and every n (where M=2n) bits of the binary bit stream are coded as one signal that is transmitted as A sin (wt + qj) where j=1,.., M 3.5 Quadra phase-Shift Modulation Taking the above concept of PSK a stage further, it can be assumed that the number of phase shifts is not limited to only two states. The transmitted carrier can undergo any number of phase changes and, by multiplying the received signal by a sine wave of equal frequency, will demodulate the phase shifts into frequency-independent voltage levels. This is indeed the case in quadraphase-shift keying (QPSK). With QPSK, the carrier undergoes four changes in phase (four symbols) and can thus represent 2 binary bits of data per symbol. Although this may seem insignificant initially, a modulation scheme has now been supposed that enables a carrier to transmit 2 bits of information instead of 1, thus effectively doubling the bandwidth of the carrier Eulers relations state the following: Now consider multiplying two sine waves together, thus From Equation 1, it can be seen that multiplying two sine waves together (one sine being the incoming signal, the other being the local oscillator at the receiver mixer) results in an output frequency double that of the input (at half the amplitude) superimposed on a dc offset of half the input amplitude. Similarly, multiplying by gives which gives an output frequency double that of the input, with no dc offset. It is now fair to make the assumption that multiplying by any phase-shifted sine wave yields a demodulated waveform with an output frequency double that of the input frequency, wh

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay -- Essays on Anxiety Disorder

Obsessive compulsive disorder is a disease that many people know of, but few people know about. Many people associate repeated washing of hands, or flicking of switches, and even cleanliness with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), however there are many more symptoms, and there are also explanations for those symptoms. In this paper, I will describe what obsessive compulsive disorder is, explain some of the effects of it, and explain why it happens. I will also attempt to prove that while medication doesn’t cure OCD, it vastly improves one’s quality of life. Furthermore I intend to show that behavior therapy (cognitive based therapy) is another useful tool in helping a person to overcome their OCD.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to the Obsessive Compulsive Disorder foundation (www.ocfoundation.org), â€Å"OCD is a medical brain disorder that causes problems in information processing.† They compare OCD to a brain hiccup; the brain gets stuck on a certain thought and cannot move forward. The brain is incapable of dealing with thoughts of worry or doubt. This causes many side effects that can clearly distinguish a person as OCD. The text book for Dr. Steinberg’s Brain and Behavior class (that I took last year)spells it out a little clearer. â€Å"Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) consists of two behaviors that occur in the same person, obsessions and compulsions.† (Garrett, 387)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is a form of an anxiety disorder. The WHO classifies OCD as one of the top ten most â€Å"disabling illnesses.† (The Practitioner, 1) The most well known side effects of OCD is the repeated washing of one’s hands. However, there is more to this compulsive hand washing then meets the eye. While it could technically be classified as a need to feel cleansed, it is actually more of a fear of germs or other impurities. The cleansing will proceed until the person is satisfied, which in some cases is never. This is the reason a person with OCD will wash their hands repeatedly. People with OCD also are known to have a fear of unlucky numbers or words, illness or injury (which relates back to the hand washing), uncertainty, thinking bad or harmful thoughts against someone, object symmetry, and many other issues, which to a non OCD person, seem almost miniscule.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How is it possible for people to get OCD? I... ...BBC Interactive (BBCi) Science and Nature:Human Body and Mind, retrieved April 5th, 2004 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/articles/disorders/gallery/gallery_case4.shtml?disorder=4&submit.x=5&submit.y=10 (7)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nangle, Douglas W., O’Grady, April C., Sallinen, Bethany J., Successful Medication Withdrawal Using Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for a Preadolescent with OCD. Journal of Academic Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 43:11, 1441-1444. November 2004. (8)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Multiple Authors, Fluoxetine in Children and Adolescents with OCD: A Placebo Controlled Trial. Journal of Academic Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 41:12, 1431-1438. December 2002. (9)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lippincott/Williams & Wilkins, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry., Retrieved April 2005. (10)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Barrett, Paula, Healy-Farrell, Lara, March, John. Cognitive-Behavioral Family treatment of Childhood Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A controlled Trial. Journal of Academic Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 43:1, 46-62. January 2004 (11)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Practitioner, 181-183, March 2002.

SAINT JOHN BOSCO Essay -- essays research papers

John Bosco was born on August 16, 1815, to a poor farming family in Becchi, a small suburb of Turin, Italy. The child grew to be the â€Å"Beloved Apostle of Youth†. One of John Bosco’s earliest recollections occurred at age two. He remembers his mother telling him upon his father’s death , â€Å"You have no father now†. Although he stated that he could not remember what his father was like , his death must have had a profound effect on him and perhaps sparked his desire to help troubled boys, many of whom were fatherless. I cannot say that I have suffered the loss of a close family member and can only imagine the effect it could have on my life. From the time he was a young child, John Bosco seemed to have a clear understanding of God’s ways; and what he didn’t understand was often made clear to him by his mother â€Å"Mama Margaret†. She seemed to know, even at an early age, that her son was destined to do good in the name of God. She taught him by example from an early age and continued to support him and all his good works throughout his life. She eventually joined him at he Oratory and became â€Å"Mother† to hundreds of boys. Her positive influence was felt by all of those boys. It was almost as if the Blessed Mother worked through her good example and words of wisdom. Mama Margaret warned her son to â€Å"beware of bad boys you may meet on your journey through life†. and asked him one day, â€Å"Why do you go with such bad boys?† How many mothers have echoed similar words? How confident John Bosco was in the power of his good example when he replied, â€Å"If I am with them they are better and do not say bad words†. Wouldn’t this world be a better place if we all had such confidence and faith in the power our own good example. As a young child, John Bosco had the ability to attract young boys. He went out of his way to study â€Å"traveling show† folk to learn acrobatic and sleight of hand tricks to entertain the boys who would gather around him. After a performance he would discuss a sermon from a recent Mass or lead the group in a hymn. If people started to leave he would tell them that they couldn’t come back and see more tricks unless they stayed for the sermon. Of course they remained. At age nine John had a dream that clearly indicated his intentions of becoming a priest. Mama Margaret understood this dream and set out to educate her son and prepare him for First Holy Communio... ...ready does exist, but we haven’t taken notice yet. I have to admit that mothers seem to have this ability to sense when we are about to get into trouble whether we know it or not. Needless to say, John Bosco worked tirelessly for his boys. A doctor had commented that his body seemed like that of a much older man. Perhaps that was because John Bosco never refused a request from anyone in need. He gave generously of his time, his energy, and his wisdom. He died on January 31, 1888 and was canonized in 1934. While reading this book I could not help but recognize the similarities between John Bosco’s Oratories and our school. There is clearly a feeling of brotherhood among the students at Don Bosco Prep. I remember how we all laughed during orientation when we were told about this feeling of brotherhood, but all of us now agree that it exists. We are led by the good example of our teachers and priests, are made to follow a code of discipline, and are provided academic and religious instruction. It is an atmosphere that guides us in choosing between right and wrong and hopefully gives us confidence and faith in the power of our own good example. The work of Saint John Bosco continues!

Gang membership, Drug Selling, and Violence in Neighborhood Context Ess

Smiley is a man who was released back into the society on a parole. He was sent back to live in his neighborhood. Shinichi Suzuki, a famous Japanese violinist who invented Suzuki Method, got the right idea of Smiley’s situation when he said â€Å"Man is a child of his environment†. It means that Smiley is a product of his environment. His neighborhood is a no picnic. The neighborhood is a basically a graveyard of American dreams. Like everyone else in America, Smiley values individualism, achievement, money, and family unity highly. However he is in a hostile society where his rough background is rejected and regarded as a stigma. He does not have education or an escape from his neighborhood where people are under a great strain. The reason for the strain is because American culture sets the bar for gold standards of an ideal lifestyle that in the reality that social structures in some groups cannot follow (Shelden, Brown, Miller, & Fitzler, 2008). According to strain theory, Smiley’s neighbors all want same things but they cannot get them legally so they decide to find illegal loopholes. They go in this state that Robert Merton would call anomie (Shelden, Brown, Miller & Fritzler, 2008). According to him, the state is when â€Å"social structures exert a definite pressure upon certain persons in the society to engage in nonconforming rather than conforming conduct† ( p.78). A gang in Smiley’s neighborhood pressures Smiley into practicing norms that are considered unacceptable legally . Smiley’s gang approves stealing, violence, abuse of drugs, and organized crimes. Smiley had to adapt by conforming to the gang’s values, follow ritualism like wearing certain colors and speaking gang jargon, and view the world as us ( gang) against them.... ..., T. (2009). Gang membership, drug selling, and violence in neighborhood context. Justice Quarterly, 26(4), 645-669. Opsal, T. (2009). Women on parole: Understanding the impact of surveillance. Women & Criminal Justice, 19(4), 306-328. Shelden, R.G., Brown, W.B., Miller, K.S., & Fritzler, R.B. (2008). Crime and criminal justice in american society. Long Grove, Illinosis: Waveland Press, INC. Stickels, J. (2007). The game of probation. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 22(1), 33-43. Wilkinson, D.L. (2007). Local Social Ties and Willingness to Intervene: Textured Views Among Violent Urban Youth of Neighborhood Social Control Dynamics and Situations. Justice Quarterly : JQ, 24(2), 185-220. (Document ID: 1295281001). http://ezproxy.rit.edu/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.rit.edu/pqdweb?did=1295281001&Fmt=7&clientId=3589&RQT=309&VName=PQD

Moss and Mcadams

Moss and McAdams Accounting Firm In the Moss and McAdams Accounting Firm also know as M and M, Bruce Palmer has just been promoted to account manager. He has been assigned to lead and manage the Jacksonville Audit. Zeke Olds has been assigned as one of the five accountants on the Jacksonville Audit and is known as an innovator in regards to problem solving. The firm operates under a matrix organizational structure which requires Palmer to share his valuable resource, Zeke Olds, with a team that is being managed by Ken Crosby. Crosby is responsible for managing special consulting projects and has requested that Olds also be assigned to his Springfield project. Over the course of about two months, there were several issues between Palmer’s and Crosby’s teams with having to share Olds. Ultimately, it resulted in Olds being reassigned to work on the Springfield project full time instead of be shared between the two teams. This paper will examine what response a project manager should provide if faced with the same issues Palmer faced within the case. Secondly, this paper will examine what Palmer could have done to avoid losing Olds. In addition, this paper will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of operating under a matrix organizational structure. Finally, this paper will examine what the management of Moss and McAdams can do to more effectively manage situations like what occurred in case. Doing Things Differently Over the course of six weeks of having to share Olds between the Jacksonville Audit and the Springfield project, Palmer experienced several issues with Crosby. At the initial phase of the project, both Crosby and Palmer agreed that Olds would dedicate his mornings working on the Springfield project and his afternoons would be dedicated to working on the Jacksonville project. From the onset, Crosby continually continue to disregard the agreed upon terms of the work schedule. If I were Palmer there are several things I would have done differently in an effort to not lose Olds, but more importantly, decreasing the impact upon my projects schedule. I would have definitely added having to share Olds as a risk factor in regards to meeting my projects baseline deadline and cost. In addition, additional time would have been added into my baseline schedule to reflect having to share Olds. All of these risks would have been communicated to upper management and to Sands to ensure that they were aware of the cost and time impact with having to share Olds. If management insisted on moving forward, I would have negotiated with Sands and Crosby that Olds be assigned to the Springfield project in exchange for adding two accountants onto the Jacksonville Audit. Basically, the Jacksonville audit appears to require accountant auditing skills. Olds has a reputation for being an innovative problem solver and his skill set seemed to be better suited for the Springfield project. The requirement for my project is to conduct and audit which accounting skills is key and should be able to be performed by other accountants at the firm. By adding 2 additional resources to my team to replace the one resource, I may be able to complete the project in less time and save money. Escape the Inevitable Palmer possibly could have possibly done several things to avoid losing Olds. However, given Olds skill set and his apparent ability to come up with innovative solutions, it is possible that the Olds would still have lost interest in conducting an audit as opposed to working on the special consulting project team. However, if it Olds was a vital resource for the Jacksonville Audit, Palmer could have possibly reduced the impact to his schedule and budget by seeking out a solution sooner than he did. Initially, he could have requested a meeting with both Crosby and Sands after the first week of experiencing issues. This would have brought to light the potential negative impact to the Jacksonville audit which still would ultimately impact Moss and McAdams. Palmer could have gotten greater commitment from Crosby and ask for some type of penalty or consequence each time there is no adherence to the agreed upon work schedule. Living in a Matrix According to Gray and Larson (2008), a matrix type of organization is one in which a hybrid organization form of a project management structure is placed directly over the functional order of the normal business operations. Typically, this type of organizational structure has two chains of command and the project participants have to report to two separate chains of command. This type of structure is designed to use resources efficiently. It is also intended to provide an optimal solution while being able to accomplish multiple projects at the same time. According to Gray and Larson (2008), there are several advantages and disadvantages to this type of organizational structure. The advantages of this type of structure are that it allows multiple projects to go on at the same time by sharing resources. It also allows the project managers to focus on coordinating and integrating different units or resources that can be integrated into several functions within the organization. Also, at the completion of a project, it is easier for project participants to transition from one team to another. Lastly, it allows greater flexibility by allowing the sharing of resources. According to Gray and Larson (2008), there are several disadvantages to operating under a matrix organization. One of the disadvantages of a matrix organization are infighting between project teams because of having to share resources. Another disadvantage is that is it can be stressful for team members with having to report to more than one chain of command. In addition, it can slow projects down as a result of having the teams to agree on items that impact multiple functional areas. Effective Management The management at M&M definitely has their hands full with operating under a matrix umbrella. Palmer experienced several issues with attempting to manage his project. The Moss and McAdams firm could have done a few things to help out in his situation. My first recommendation is that they implement a project management office instead of having Sands to operate within this capacity. Her role is that of office manager and I don’t believe with her other duties that she can effectively manage assigning personnel to different teams. In addition, the project management office would ultimately see the percentage that resources are actually being allocated to a project. Overseeing cost and time is something that the project management office can oversee and provide insight to each project team. According to CIO. com out of four hundred and fifty people were surveyed about the benefits of the formation of a project management office (PMO). Thirty seven percent of those surveyed reported a sixty five percent success rate increase with the usage of a PMO. It is my belief that this firm would greatly benefit from the implementation of a project management office. In addition, they could implement some type of policy in regards to team members that are not being team players. Management should step in to help out in these types of situations. Ultimately each project team is combined together to make up one firm which is Moss and McAdams. Conclusion Overall this was a great case to review. It provided a lot of insight into possible things a project manger may be faced with. It was pretty obvious that Palmer definitely reacted later rather than sooner. In doing so, his delayed reaction impacted his project timeline and cost while Crosby continued trucking right along. It appears that identifying a problem quickly and working to resolve it quickly can be a key that either makes a project success or failure. References Gray, C. , and Larson, E. (2008). Bus517: Project management: The managerial process: 2009 custom edition (4th ed. ). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Why You Need a Project Management Office. (2003). Retrieved from CIO. com: http://www. cio. com/article/29887/Why_You_Need_a_Project_Management_Office_PMO

Answering Question

Psychology in its attempt to establish itself as a scientific study has come up with ingenious ways to be scientific and objective. It was accepted that psychology was concerned with the thoughts, emotions, feelings and the inner processes of the individual, hence to study these aspects; it must develop a method that would dig and explore the said human processes. And the answer was the introspective method. However, as soon as it gained following, it also earned criticisms and lead to another methodological development. The major criticism against the introspective method was its subjectivity and unreliability which basically goes against its being a scientific tool. Conversely, the answer to the introspective method was behaviorism which is completely at odds with it. Behaviorism reduces human behavior into a simple equation wherein a stimulus produces a response and that in order to understand human behavior one must employ the tools of behaviorism. This method appealed to the scientific community as it is measurable, observable and can be replicated. Behaviorism was thought of as a better approach than the introspective method and hence swept it away. The basic aspect that made the introspective method flawed and unscientific is also the same thing that behaviorism neglected to acknowledge and would have enriched this movement more than it is. I believe that people’s introspections are as much as important as the overt behavior of individuals. Psychology is the study of man’s behavior and our behavior cannot be reduced into a simple stimulus is to response theory. Clearly, something happens between the perception of the stimulus and the subsequent reaction to the stimulus. Like for example when my professor told us to work on this assignment, it being the stimulus for sure I and all my classmates will react to it by accomplishing our assigned tasks. However, the bulk of the work happens between the day the tasks were assigned to us and the day we submit our completed papers. Taking it further, when I read the questions of this assignment which happens to be the stimulus, I would naturally begin to draft my answers hence my response to the stimulus. But before coming up with my answers, I have to look inward and ask myself what should be the appropriate answer for this question and how should I present my arguments, in essence I was being introspective. Why we do the things we do can not be fully explained by behaviorism alone. As dynamic human beings with different experiences, we may react to things in the same way but we may have different perceptions or understanding of that stimuli, like when we hear a baby cry, most of us would go and pick the baby to make it stop, but I might do so because the sound of a crying baby is irritating and another person might pick the baby up out of a genuine concern for the baby, hence what goes on inside our mind is much as important in determining how we react to certain things, why we make decisions and pass judgments on others etc. Man is a complex being and the vital aspects that would lead to a better study and understanding of man are found on inner processes that cannot be directly observed and quantified, which is why the mechanistic approach of behaviorism was short-lived. By completely throwing man’s introspections out of the picture, behaviorism threw out what made psychology human. What factors are responsible for the development of modern cognitive psychology? Cognitive psychology is the study of the science of knowing. Its study encompasses the basic thought processes of man and its importance to our daily existence. The modern cognitive psychology movement has been influenced by computer technology. In order to better understand how the brain functions and how it controls everything that we do, we must first study it, but since it is ethically impossible to take a healthy person’s brain and study it, we must find a similar model, and this is where the idea that the computer is much alike the brain. With its immense computing power, the computer have been developed to simulate human intelligence and allowed a new way of studying how the brain stores, records, and processes information. Moreover, the brain as the single controlling processing unit in man, it is responsible for all of our bodily actions thus recent developments in imaging have given psychologists the opportunity to study what part of the brain is responsible for what action and how bizarre diseases can be explained by a dysfunction in the brain like the Capgras syndrome. Write a 200-300 word summary and critical analysis of this article. Discuss what the article is basically about, its strong and weak points, how convincing (or unconvincing) you find its arguments, and how it might be followed up (e.g., if you think the article suggests any promising, new ideas for future research, describe what they are and how they might best pursued.) The article attempts to discuss how cognitive psychology developed. Kedler proposes that cognitive psychology was not born rather it slowly came into being. The author then presents the influences that contributed to the development of cognitive psychology in history. He says that due to the curious mix of theoretical approaches in cognitive psychology it is not a singularly minded discipline like structuralism or Gestalt psychology. Moreover, the author claims that because of the complexity in the theories within cognitive psychology and the different areas of study within the discipline have made it more computer science than psychology. The strengths of this article are found on its exhaustive presentation of the different theoretical influences in the field of psychology, from Wund’s introspectionism, Piaget’s cognitive development, Tolman’s cognitive map, and a host of other theories that he categorizes as a study of cognition. He also gave emphasis on how the fields of communications engineering, computer science, linguistics and human engineering as the mover in the field of cognitive psychology in terms of new researches and areas of discourse. The weakness of this article is in the fact that it was not able to prove how cognitive psychology came into being. The author only enumerated and discussed the numerous theories that had to do with cognition, memory and learning. What he presented were the natural consequences of the theories and a novel explanation of how this theories influenced cognitive psychology is not reiterated, its as if the reader is left to deduce how that came about. The article is convincing in terms of how cognitive psychology is made up of a number of schools of thought and but it is unconvincing when it says that cognitive psychology is more of a computer science than psychology, when clearly it is within the realms of psychology based on the processes involved in learning, memory, and processing. At the same way, human engineering, communications engineering, linguistics and computer science are based on psychological processes and use constructs that have been studied and explored by psychology first. References Kendler, H. (1987) Cognitive Psychology in Richard P. Honeck, Introductory Readings for Cognitive Psychology 3rd ed   p.6-13 (1997), William C. Brown Communications Reisberg, D. (2001). Cognition: Exploring the Science of the Mind   2nd edition. New York: WW Norton 2001